Fish Oil: Benefits, Dosage, Contraindications
Other name(s)
Omega 3
Scientific name(s)
Omega-3
Family or group:
Fatty Acids
Active ingredients:
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA)
Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA)
Indications
Rating methodology
EFSA approval.
Child Development ✪✪✪✪✪
Omega-3s contribute to the maintenance of normal brain functions and normal vision. Claim recognized and authorized by EFSA. Fish oil supplementation in infants seems to improve vision development but not cognitive or neurodevelopment. Clinical research shows that infants supplemented with fish oil-containing formulas from 3 to 10 days after birth have better visual acuity at 2 months, reflecting retinal function, at 1 year compared to infants supplemented with linoleic acid-containing formulas. However, supplementing infants with omega-3 fatty acids such as fish oil does not affect cognition and neurological development. Interestingly, a combination of fish oil (80%) and evening primrose oil (20%) seems to improve reading, spelling, and behavior when given to children aged 5 to 12 with developmental coordination disorder. The effect of fish oil on motor skills in these children is unclear, especially since another study shows that taking fish oil with evening primrose oil does not improve motor skills in children with coordination disorders. However, another very small scale study shows that taking fish oil in combination with evening primrose oil, thyme oil, and vitamin E, improves motor skills, including manual dexterity, ball skills, and balance in children with dyslexia and coordination disorders.
Posologie
Oral
250 mg
oil
Fetal Development ✪✪✪✪✪
There is interest in using fish oil supplements to increase maternal omega-3 fatty acid intake to the fetus. Taking 4 grams of fish oil per day from the 20th week of gestation until delivery significantly increases EPA and DHA levels in the mother at the 30th and 37th weeks of gestation and during the 6 weeks postpartum. EPA and DHA levels were also significantly higher in the newborns' erythrocytes.
Posologie
Oral
2.4 - 4 g
Adults, Pregnant Women
oil
The effect of maternal omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 LCPUFA) supplementation during pregnancy and/or lactation on body fat mass in the offspring: a systematic review of animal studies
Fish Oil Supplementation in Pregnancy Increases Gestational Age, Size for Gestational Age, and Birth Weight in Infants: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Effect of fish oil supplementation in pregnancy on bone, lean, and fat mass at six years: randomised clinical trial
Association of fish and fish liver oil intake in pregnancy with infant size at birth among women of normal weight before pregnancy in a fishing community
Hypertriglyceridemia ✪✪✪✪✪
Fish oil can reduce triglyceride levels by 20% to 50%. The effect is dose-dependent and is highest in individuals with severe hypertriglyceridemia (triglyceride levels of 500 mg/dL and above). However, fish oil may be less effective than fibrates (lipid-lowering drugs). In 2019, the American Heart Association (AHA) stated that prescription fish oil products, taken at 4 grams per day (providing 3.4 to 3.6 grams of omega-3 fatty acids per day), are clinically useful for reducing triglyceride levels in patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia. Fish oil supplements have also shown benefits in clinical research when used in doses ranging from 1 to 15 grams per day. However, some experts believe that these forms of fish oil are inadequate because the omega-3 fatty acid content of fish oil supplements is generally lower and often variable compared to prescription fish oil. It is often necessary to take up to 12 capsules of fish oil supplements per day to achieve the same effect as prescription fish oil. Other experts state that it is still not possible to determine if prescription fish oil products work better than dietary fish oil supplements because there is no study directly comparing these agents.
Posologie
Oral
1 - 15 g
Adults
oil
Effect of n-3 fatty acids on the composition and binding properties of lipoproteins in hypertriglyceridemic patients.
Long-term effects of fish oil on lipoprotein subfractions and low density lipoprotein size in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients with hypertriglyceridemia.
Effect of a fish-oil concentrate on serum lipids in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy in a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial.
Postprandial chylomicrons and VLDLs in severe hypertriacylglycerolemia are lowered more effectively than are chylomicron remnants after treatment with n-3 fatty acids.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids for the Management of Hypertriglyceridemia: A Science Advisory From the American Heart Association.
The effect of fish oil on hypertension, plasma lipids and hemostasis in hypertensive, obese, dyslipidemic patients with and without diabetes mellitus.
Moderate fish-oil supplementation reverses low-platelet, long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid status and reduces plasma triacylglycerol concentrations in British Indo-Asians.
The clinical relevance of omega-3 fatty acids in the management of hypertriglyceridemia.
Effects of modest doses of omega-3 fatty acids on lipids and lipoproteins in hypertriglyceridemic subjects. A randomized controlled trial.
Effects of a low saturated fat, low cholesterol fish oil supplement in hypertriglyceridemic patients. A placebo-controlled trial.
Effect of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on fasting and postprandial triacylglycerol metabolism.
Normal subjects consuming physiological levels of 18:3(n-3) and 20:5(n-3) from flaxseed or fish oils have characteristic differences in plasma lipid and lipoprotein fatty acid levels.
Hypertension ✪✪✪✪✪
Oral intake of fish oil seems to moderately but significantly reduce systolic and diastolic blood pressure in hypertensive patients with or without type 2 diabetes. Some clinical evidence suggests that the blood pressure-lowering effects of fish oil may only be observed in patients with moderate to severe hypertension and may not occur in patients with mild hypertension. However, other clinical evidence suggests that taking fish oil ethyl esters reduces systolic and diastolic blood pressure compared to baseline in mildly hypertensive subjects. This difference concerning the antihypertensive effect of fish oil in people with mild hypertension may relate to the type of fish oil used for treatment. Analyses of clinical research suggest that,in general, fish oil reduces systolic blood pressure by 2.5 to 5.5 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure by 1.5 to 3.5 mmHg in hypertensive individuals. Taking fish oil does not appear to significantly improve blood pressure in people with poorly controlled hypertension despite the use of antihypertensives. A dose of 4 to 15 g of fish oil per day, in one or several doses, has been used for up to 36 weeks. An oil providing 2.04 g of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and 1.4 g of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) per day was also used.
Posologie
Oral
4 - 15 g
36 weeks
Adults
oil
Effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on blood pressure in hypertension. A population-based intervention trial from the Tromsø study.
Does supplementation of diet with 'fish oil' reduce blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials.
Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on glucose homeostasis and blood pressure in essential hypertension. A randomized, controlled trial.
Effect of medium-term supplementation with a moderate dose of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure in mild hypertensive patients.
Fish oil produces an atherogenic lipid profile in hypertensive men.
Fish oil as an adjuvant in the treatment of hypertension.
The effect of fish oil on hypertension, plasma lipids and hemostasis in hypertensive, obese, dyslipidemic patients with and without diabetes mellitus.
The antihypertensive effects of fish oil. A controlled study of polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements in essential hypertension.
Does fish oil lower blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled trials.
Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.
A systematic review of fish-oil supplements for the prevention and treatment of hypertension.
Attention Deficit Disorders ✪✪✪✪✪
Clinical research shows that oral intake of fish oil improves attention, cognitive function, and behavior in children aged 8 to 13 with ADHD. Additional clinical research shows that a specific supplement containing 400 mg of fish oil and 100 mg of evening primrose oil, taken in six capsules per day, improves cognitive function, hyperactivity, inattention, and behavior in children aged 7 to 12 with ADHD. In other research, doses of 500 to 750 mg of EPA and 120 to 650 mg of DHA over a period of up to 16 weeks have been used.
Posologie
Oral
120 - 750 mg
16 - weeks
oil
Synergies
Effect of supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids and micronutrients on learning and behavior problems associated with child ADHD.
A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of supplementation with highly unsaturated fatty acids on ADHD-related symptoms in children with specific learning difficulties.
Effect of supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids and micronutrients on learning and behavior problems associated with child ADHD.
EFA supplementation in children with inattention, hyperactivity, and other disruptive behaviors.
Effect of supplementation with long-chain CF-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on behavior and cognition in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a randomized placebo-controlled intervention trial.
Reduced Symptoms of Inattention after Dietary Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation in Boys with and without Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.
A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology: systematic review and meta-analysis.
Crohn's Disease ✪✪✪✪✪
The results are mixed regarding the effectiveness of fish oil in patients with Crohn's disease. Some research has shown that taking fish oil providing 2.7g of omega-3 fatty acids per day for 12 months can reduce relapse rates in patients with Crohn's disease in remission. However, other clinical trials show that taking 4 to 5 grams of fish oil daily does not significantly reduce relapse in Crohn's disease patients compared to placebo. A dose of 1.2 to 3.3 g of EPA and 0.6 to 1.8 g of DHA per day for one year has also been used.
Posologie
Oral
2.7 g
12 - months
Adults
oil
Omega-3 fatty acids and low carbohydrate diet for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease. A randomized controlled multicenter trial. Study Group Members (German Crohn's Disease Study Group).
Maintenance of remission in inflammatory bowel disease using omega-3 fatty acids (fish oil): a systematic review and meta-analyses.
A meta-analysis of the analgesic effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for inflammatory joint pain
Omega 3 fatty acids (fish oil) for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease.
Effect of an enteric-coated fish-oil preparation on relapses in Crohn's disease.
Depression ✪✪✪✪✪
A high dietary intake of fish has been associated with a lower risk of depression. However, it is unclear if taking fish oil supplements can help reduce depression symptoms, as clinical research results are mixed. This contradiction may be related to the dose of fish oil, the eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) ratio in the fish oil supplement, as well as the type and severity of depression before treatment. In a clinical trial, taking fish oil supplements at a dose of 6.6 grams per day significantly improved response when taken with standard antidepressants. Other clinical research suggests that daily intake of fish oil for 3 months improves some measures of depression in patients with Parkinson's disease and major depression. Moreover, treatment with fish oil containing 1.05 g of ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid (E-EPA) and 0.15 g of ethyl-docosahexaenoic acid (E-DHA), taken at 1.5 g per day, appears to alleviate depressive symptoms in postmenopausal women with severe depression. Additionally, taking 1 g of fish oil per day for 16 weeks appears to improve depressive symptoms in children aged 6 to 12 with major depressive disorder compared to placebo. A meta-analysis shows that taking fish oil at 1.5 grams or more reduces depressive symptoms, while doses below 1.5 grams show no effect. Furthermore, the type of depression can influence the effectiveness of fish oil supplementation. Research analysis suggests that fish oil supplementation may be effective in individuals with major depression but not significantly in those with mild to moderate depression.
Posologie
Oral
1.5 - 6.6 g
3 - months
Adults
oil
Meta-analysis of the effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in clinical trials in depression.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) levels in patients with cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) with and without depression
Fish consumption, depression, and suicidality in a general population.
Ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid for the treatment of psychological distress and depressive symptoms in middle-aged women: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial.
Omega-3 fatty acids and the treatment of depression: a review of scientific evidence
Dietary n-3 PUFA, Fish Consumption and Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Recurrent Mood Disorders: Phenomenology, Mechanisms, and Clinical Application
EPA but not DHA appears to be responsible for the efficacy of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in depression: evidence from a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.
Omega-3 and omega-6 Fatty Acid Levels in Depressive and Anxiety Disorders
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Moderate the Effect of Poor Sleep on Depression Risk
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and reduction of depressive symptoms in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Role of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in the Etiology, Treatment, and Prevention of Depression: Current Status and Future Directions
Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Psychological Intervention for Workers With Mild to Moderate Depression: A Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Trial
Omega-3 for bipolar disorder: meta-analyses of use in mania and bipolar depression
Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
Lowered omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in serum phospholipids and cholesteryl esters of depressed patients.
The role of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3PUFAs) in affective disorders
Depression in Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study of omega-3 fatty-acid supplementation.
Plasma fatty acid composition and depression are associated in the elderly: the Rotterdam Study.
Dyslipidemia ✪✪✪✪✪
There are conflicting results regarding the effects of fish oil on lipid levels. It has been demonstrated that dietary consumption of fish, about 250 grams twice weekly, can lower total cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels, and increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels in patients with hyperlipidemia. However, most research shows that taking fish oil supplements does not improve cholesterol levels and may even increase LDL cholesterol levels in patients with hypercholesterolemia or dyslipidemia. Often, LDL cholesterol levels increase when fish oil supplements are taken at higher doses, such as 5 to 20 grams per day. A dose of 4 grams of fish oil per day for up to 8 weeks has been used. Fish oil containing 1800 to 2160 mg of EPA and 1200 to 1440 mg of DHA, combined with garlic powder at 900-1200 mg per day for 4 to 12 weeks was also used.
Posologie
Oral
4 g
8 - weeks
Adults
oil
Comparison of the effect of omega-3 supplements and fresh fish on lipid profile: a randomized, open-labeled trial.
Regulatory effects of HMG CoA reductase inhibitor and fish oils on apolipoprotein B-100 kinetics in insulin-resistant obese male subjects with dyslipidemia.
Efficacy of fish oil supplementation for treatment of moderate elevation of serum cholesterol.
Effect of fish oil versus corn oil supplementation on LDL and HDL subclasses in type 2 diabetic patients.
Modulation of lipid profile by fish oil and garlic combination.
Effect of garlic and fish-oil supplementation on serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in hypercholesterolemic men.
Fish oil and glycemic control in diabetes. A meta-analysis.
Congestive Heart Failure ✪✪✪✪✪
Dietary fish oil may be beneficial for the primary prevention of heart failure. Research has shown that increased consumption of dietary fish oil is associated with a 15% reduction in the risk of heart failure. Based on these data and other studies, the American Heart Association (AHA) recommends that patients consume non-fried fish once to twice a week to reduce the risk of congestive heart failure. Moreover, there is not enough information available to determine if fish oil supplements are beneficial for the primary prevention of heart failure. However, taking fish oil supplements appears to be beneficial for the secondary prevention of heart failure. A clinical research analysis shows that taking 600 to 4300 mg of omega-3 fatty acids orally daily for up to 12 months can improve left ventricular ejection fraction and cardiac function in patients with non-ischemic chronic heart failure.
Posologie
Oral
600 - 4300 mg
12 - months
Adults
oil
Fish consumption, omega-3 fatty acids and risk of heart failure: a meta-analysis.
Seafood Long-Chain n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Disease: A Science Advisory From the American Heart Association.
Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid (Fish Oil) Supplementation and the Prevention of Clinical Cardiovascular Disease: A Science Advisory From the American Heart Association.
Systemic lupus erythematosus ✪✪✪✪✪
Clinical research suggests that fish oil may reduce SLE symptoms by up to 50%. However, other research has shown no effect on disease activity or renal function. A specific fish oil supplement has been used at a dose of 3 to 20 grams per day, alone or combined with 3 mg of copper per day, for 24 to 34 weeks.
Posologie
Oral
3 - 20 g
34 - weeks
Adults
oil
The clinical effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fish oils and/or copper in systemic lupus erythematosus.
Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Lipids and Glycemic Control in Type II Diabetes and the Metabolic Syndrome and on Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Renal Disease, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, and Osteoporosis
Dietary fish oil and the severity of symptoms in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus.
Rheumatoid arthritis ✪✪✪✪✪
Taking fish oil orally, alone or in combination with naproxen, seems to significantly reduce the duration of morning stiffness and the number of tender joints in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The use of fish oil may also reduce the need for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs when used concurrently. Taking omega-3 fatty acids at 5.5 grams per day for 12 months at the start of methotrexate or hydroxychloroquine and sulfasalazine treatment may also slow the failure of conventional treatment and reduce the time to first remission in early-stage rheumatoid arthritis patients.
Posologie
Oral
5.5 - 10 g
Adults
oil
Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Lipids and Glycemic Control in Type II Diabetes and the Metabolic Syndrome and on Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Renal Disease, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, and Osteoporosis: Summary
A meta-analysis of the analgesic effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for inflammatory joint pain
Fish oil in recent onset rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized, double-blind controlled trial within algorithm-based drug use
A meta-analysis of the analgesic effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for inflammatory joint pain
Effects of fish oil supplementation on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug requirement in patients with mild rheumatoid arthritis--a double-blind placebo controlled study
Effects of high-dose fish oil on rheumatoid arthritis after stopping nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Clinical and immune correlates
Dietary fish oil and olive oil supplementation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Clinical and immunologic effects
Effect of six months of fish oil supplementation in stable rheumatoid arthritis. A double-blind, controlled study
Dysmenorrhea ✪✪✪✪✪
Clinical research shows that taking fish oil, alone or in combination with vitamin B12 or vitamin E, seems to decrease pain and the consumption of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in adolescents and women experiencing dysmenorrhea.
Posologie
Oral
2.5 g
Women
oil
Synergies
Supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the management of dysmenorrhea in adolescents
A meta-analysis of the analgesic effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for inflammatory joint pain
Menstrual Discomfort in Danish Women Reduced by Dietary Supplements of Omega-3 PUFA and B12 (Fish Oil or Seal Oil Capsules)
Menstrual pain in Danish women correlated with low n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake
Cardiovascular diseases ✪✪✪✪✪
Several recently published clinical studies and meta-analyses, which compile the best available data to date, show that fish oil supplements, typically taken at a gram per day, are not beneficial for the primary or secondary prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Ongoing trials are evaluating whether taking fish oil supplements at higher doses, 3 to 4 grams per day, is beneficial. Dietary fish oil might be beneficial for primary or secondary prevention, but the benefits are likely modest at best. Still, people should continue to eat fish and other foods that provide omega-3 fatty acids, as these foods are part of a healthy and balanced diet.
Posologie
Oral
1 - 4 g
Adults
oil
Impact of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on vascular function and blood pressure: Relevance for cardiovascular outcomes
Long-term Effect of High Dose omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation for Secondary Prevention of Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized, Placebo Controlled Trials [Corrected]
Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Disease: Effects on Risk Factors, Molecular Pathways, and Clinical Events
Use of Supplemental Long-Chain omega-3 Fatty Acids and Risk for Cardiac Death: An Updated Meta-Analysis and Review of Research Gaps
Long Chain omega-3 Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review
Effect of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on endothelial function: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
Association between fish consumption, long chain omega 3 fatty acids, and risk of cerebrovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis
Alzheimer's disease ✪✪✪✪✪
Population studies have linked increased consumption of fish and fish oil with a reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease. However, in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease, taking a specific fish oil supplement providing omega-3 fatty acids DHA 1.7 grams and EPA 0.6 grams per day for 6 months does not significantly delay cognitive decline, although this fish oil supplement may slow cognitive decline in a subgroup of patients with very mild cognitive impairment. Considering that omega-3 fatty acids possess anti-inflammatory properties and that inflammatory markers have been located in the brains of Alzheimer's patients, it seems reasonable to suggest that omega-3 fatty acids could delay the onset of Alzheimer's disease by reducing the brain's inflammatory state.
Posologie
Oral
4 g
Adults
oil
Dietary patterns and risk of dementia: the Three-City cohort study
Consumption of Fish and n-3 Fatty Acids and Risk of Incident Alzheimer Disease
Association of fish oil supplement use with preservation of brain volume and cognitive function
Cognitive decline ✪✪✪✪✪
The results of numerous animal studies demonstrating neuroprotection and the slowing of neurodegeneration by long-chain omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids seem promising. A low DHA level in the serum is considered a significant risk factor for the development of Alzheimer's dementia. Also, DHA and total long-chain omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are markedly lower in cases of cognitive impairments. Certain clinical research suggests that taking 3g of fish oil daily orally for 12 months may improve memory in patients with mild cognitive impairment. Each 1 gram capsule provided 430 mg of DHA and 150 mg of EPA. A Cochrane study reached a similar conclusion, indicating that there is a growing body of evidence from biological, observational, and epidemiological studies to suggest a protective effect of omega 3 against dementia.
Posologie
Oral
1.8 - 3 g
Adults
oil
Docosahexaenoic acid-concentrated fish oil supplementation in subjects with mild cognitive impairment (MCI): a 12-month randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Combined omega-3 Fatty Acids, Aerobic Exercise and Cognitive Stimulation Prevents Decline in Gray Matter Volume of the Frontal, Parietal and Cingulate Cortex in Patients With Mild Cognitive Impairment
Omega-3 Fatty Acids Moderate Effects of Physical Activity on Cognitive Function
Consumption of Fish and n-3 Fatty Acids and Risk of Incident Alzheimer Disease
Effects of supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on cognitive performance and cardiometabolic risk markers in healthy 51 to 72 years old subjects: a randomized controlled cross-over study
Association of fish oil supplement use with preservation of brain volume and cognitive function
Emotional Balance ✪✪✪✪✪
Daily intake for 12 weeks of a 1.2 gram fish oil supplement containing 700 mg EPA, 480 mg DHA, 7.6 mg mixed tocopherols, and 220 mg other omega-3 fatty acids reduces the incidence of psychotic disorders by about 23% compared to placebo.
Posologie
Oral
1.2 - 6.6 g
3 - months
Adults
oil
Meta-analysis of the effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in clinical trials in depression.
Fish consumption, depression, and suicidality in a general population.
thyl-eicosapentaenoic acid for the treatment of psychological distress and depressive symptoms in middle-aged women: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial.
Omega-3 fatty acids and the treatment of depression: a review of scientific evidence
Dietary n-3 PUFA, Fish Consumption and Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Recurrent Mood Disorders: Phenomenology, Mechanisms, and Clinical Application
EPA but not DHA appears to be responsible for the efficacy of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in depression: evidence from a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.
Omega-3 and omega-6 Fatty Acid Levels in Depressive and Anxiety Disorders
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Moderate the Effect of Poor Sleep on Depression Risk
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and reduction of depressive symptoms in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Role of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in the Etiology, Treatment, and Prevention of Depression: Current Status and Future Directions
Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids for indicated prevention of psychotic disorders: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial
Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Psychological Intervention for Workers With Mild to Moderate Depression: A Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Trial
Omega-3 fatty acid deficiencies in neurodevelopment, aggression and autonomic dysregulation: Opportunities for intervention
Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
Lowered omega3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in serum phospholipids and cholesteryl esters of depressed patients.
The role of n-3 polyunsatured fatty acids (n-3PUFAs) in affective disorders
Depression in Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study of omega-3 fatty-acid supplementation.
Plasma fatty acid composition and depression are associated in the elderly: the Rotterdam Study.
Bipolarity ✪✪✪✪✪
Oral intake of fish oil, combined with conventional therapies, seems to improve depression symptoms and increase remission duration in patients with bipolar disorders.
Posologie
Oral
2.4 - 3.4 g
oil
Osteoporosis ✪✪✪✪✪
Epidemiological research has shown that increased intake of foods, including fish, rich in omega-3 fatty acids and reduced intake of omega-6 fatty acids are associated with higher bone mineral density in the hips, in both women and men. Clinical research shows that oral intake of fish oil, in combination with evening primrose oil and calcium, appears to decrease bone turnover and increase bone mineral density of the spine and femur in elderly individuals with osteoporosis.
Posologie
Oral
500 mg
Adults
oil
Synergies
Calcium, gamma-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid supplementation in senile osteoporosis
Ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids and bone mineral density in older adults: the Rancho Bernardo Study
Endometrial Cancer ✪✪✪✪✪
It is proven that women who regularly consume about two servings of fatty fish per week have a reduced risk of endometrial cancer.
Posologie
Oral
2 g
oil
Properties
Neurological
Fatty acids are major components of the brain and are found in high concentrations in the neuronal membrane and myelin sheath. DHA levels in the brain are 250 to 300 times higher than those of EPA. DHA is believed to be important for normal neuronal function and may play a key role in the structural development of neuronal and synaptic membranes. There is evidence that low levels of omega-3 fatty acids, particularly DHA, may affect retinal, visual, learning, and memory functions. A diet low in omega-3 fatty acids could affect the fatty acid composition of central nervous system cells and impair neural function, including intellectual or cognitive development. Reduced levels of omega-3 fatty acids have been reported in patients with schizophrenia, and the disorder is suggested to relate to dysfunction in fatty acid metabolism. Indeed, omega-3 fatty acids may alter membrane fluidity and receptor response when incorporated into cell membranes and can interact with dopaminergic and serotonergic systems.
Usages associés
Lipid Lowering
Fish oil can decrease cholesterol absorption in the intestines and cholesterol synthesis. Fish oil has been proven to increase high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and reduce the total cholesterol to HDL ratio. It may also increase low-density lipoprotein (LDL) concentrations by increasing the size of LDL particles. Fish oil is thought to lead to the development of a more buoyant LDL, which could be less atherogenic. Conversely, fish oil is believed to lower triglycerides by decreasing very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) secretion, increasing apolipoprotein B secretion from VLDL, possibly enhancing VLDL clearance, and reducing triglyceride transport. Fish oil may decrease chylomicron concentrations. Lipoprotein lipase becomes available due to decreased VLDL levels, leading to increased chylomicron hydrolysis. Fish oil also enhances fatty acid oxidation, reduces fatty acid synthesis, diverts fatty acids into phospholipid synthesis, increases hepatic uptake of triglycerides, and decreases fatty acid-esterifying enzymes.
Usages associés
Antidepressant
Although results are mixed, several studies suggest that moderate fish consumption or increased omega-3 intake is associated with a reduced risk of neuropsychiatric disorders, including depression. It has also been observed that omega-3 fatty acid intake is inversely proportional to the severity of depression. Additionally, low DHA levels and high omega-6:omega-3 ratios were associated with suicide forecasts and depressive symptoms. In depression, omega-3s might improve altered neuronal membrane microstructure and defective neurotransmission.
Usages associés
Anti-inflammatory
Omega-3 fatty acids derived from fish oil compete with arachidonic acid in cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways and inhibit leukotriene synthesis, suggesting utility for inflammatory conditions. Moreover, fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids appear to suppress immune response mediators by reducing cytokine production and inhibiting the synthesis of interleukin-1 (alpha and beta) and tumor necrosis factor. Additionally, some clinical research suggests that omega-3 fatty acids reduce endothelial activation by decreasing rates of intercellular adhesion molecules 1 (ICAM-1) and thrombomodulin, indicating reduced inflammation.
Usages associés
Cardiovascular
Fish oil reduces blood viscosity, increases red blood cell deformability, and potentially offers protection against red blood cell hemolysis. The vasodilatory effects of omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil may also prevent increases in blood pressure and maintain kidney function. For example, fish oil may increase prostacyclin production, a prostaglandin that causes vasodilation. Fish oil may have an anti-arrhythmic effect. Increasing dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids increases EPA and DHA in cell membranes, potentially altering the function of enzymes and receptors, leading to changes in calcium flux through cell membranes. There is also evidence that fish oil may affect sodium and potassium channels and inhibit ischemia-induced arrhythmias. Fish oil may also protect the heart by reducing inflammation and thrombosis and inhibiting atherosclerosis.
Usages associés
Immunomodulatory
Fish oil reduces the production of cytokines such as interleukin-1 (IL-1), Interleukin-2 (IL-2), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF). Fish oil also suppresses T and B lymphocyte proliferation and decreases delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) skin response. In patients with IgA nephropathy, omega-3 fatty acids appear to reduce renal inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, other human studies have found that omega-3 fatty acids have no effect on inflammatory cytokines.
Usages associés
Antiplatelet/Anticoagulant
The omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil have antithrombotic effects. They compete with arachidonic acid in the cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways. As a result, fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids decrease the synthesis of thromboxane A2 (and its precursor thromboxane B2) from arachidonic acid and increase thromboxane A3 formation. Thromboxane A2 causes platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction, whereas thromboxane A3 does not. By decreasing thromboxane A2 synthesis, omega-3 fatty acids reduce platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction. Fish oil may also increase the production of prostacycline and prostaglandin I3 (prostaglandins that cause vasodilation and reduce platelet aggregation). Fish oil or omega-3 fatty acids may also increase fibrinolysis rates (a complex physiological process of dissolving blood clots that prevent thrombosis formation).
Musculoskeletal Effects
Fish oil has been tested to improve muscle growth in older adults and to enhance muscle performance in athletes during exercise. Indeed, the anti-inflammatory effects of fish oils are believed to inhibit muscle damage after exercise, allowing for better muscle growth. The results of a small clinical trial show that consuming fish oil containing 600 mg of eicosapentaenoic acid and 260 mg of docosahexaenoic acid per day for 8 weeks appears to improve maximal voluntary contraction, muscle soreness, and range of motion compared to placebo in healthy men.
Safety dosage
Adult: 1 g - 3 g (oil)
For general health, 250 mg combined EPA and DHA is the minimum dose and can be obtained by consuming fish. The American Heart Association recommends 1 g per day. Several studies have shown that doses of 3 g or less per day can be safely used by most people.
Pregnant Women: 1.4 g (oil)
The intake of omega-3 fatty acids for pregnant women is 1.4 grams per day, according to "the Institute of Medicine and the Food and Nutrition Board". Pregnant women should avoid sharks, swordfish, king mackerel, and catfish, as they may contain high concentrations of methylmercury. They should also limit consumption of other fish to 12 ounces/week (about 3 to 4 servings/week).
Lactating Women: 1.3 g (oil)
The intake of omega-3 fatty acids is 1.3 grams per day for lactating women, according to "the Institute of Medicine and the Food and Nutrition Board". Breastfeeding mothers should avoid sharks, swordfish, king mackerel, and catfish, as they may contain high concentrations of methylmercury. They should also limit consumption of other fish to 12 ounces/week (about 3 to 4 servings/week).
